The tropical coastlines of Southeast Asia are home to some of the most important and biodiverse marine ecosystems on the planet.
However, they are also among its most vulnerable, with areas of coral reefs, mangrove forests and seagrass beds under increasing threat from a wide range of human activities.
To try and better understand those potential threats, a study by an international team of researchers has provided the first detailed assessment of activities taking place within coastal and marine habitats and the impact they have on those ecosystems.
The research focused on case study sites in Indonesia, the Philippines, Vietnam and Malaysia, including marine protected areas in UNESCO Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Reserves as well as a Marine Park.
Of the 26 activities that were examined, it found that particular fishing techniques - and tourism and recreation - posed the greatest threat to the ecosystems.
The fishing practices, including trawling and the use of gill and seine nets, were shown to cause physical pressures such as abrasion, smothering, siltation and total habitat loss.
Meanwhile tourism activities resulted in different pressures such as organic enrichment, litter and pollution, in particular affecting coral reef habitats.
With fishing and tourism being critical to the region's economy, the researchers hope that highlighting their potential to impact specific locations could help ensure they can be conducted in a more sustainable manner in the future.
The study, published in the British Ecological Society's Journal of Applied Ecology, was led by researchers from the University of Plymouth together and involved colleagues from across Southeast Asia.
It was carried out as part of
Blue Communities, a £6.7million programme funded through the UK Government's Global Challenges Research Fund (GCRF) in partnership with UK Research and Innovation (UKRI).
Dr Fiona Culhane, who carried out the research as part of a Postdoctoral Research Fellowship at the University of Plymouth, and is currently a Postdoctoral Researcher at the Marine Institute in Ireland, is the study's lead author.
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