Most of us like to believe we would have opposed the rise of Nazism in 1930s Germany. We may even like to imagine that we would have bravely fought for the resistance to Nazism in the 1940s. But would we? Our ability to take a stand may be put to the test as authoritarianism is increasing worldwide.
Authors
- Magnus Linden
Associate Professor of Psychology, Lund University
- George R. Wilkes
Director, Relwar Project, Senior Research Fellow, King's College London
All electoral democracies can transform into autocracies. These are governments that restrict political and civil rights, centralise executive power, manipulate elections and minimise the diversity of political views.
In western democracies, a move toward autocracy is often led by would-be strongmen whose focus is to reinstate traditionalist values and nationalism . They typically target the free media, opponents and stigmatised social groups without moral compunction.
Moves to deepen autocracy are always resisted, however. Depending on how autocratic a country is, this resistance will differ. Early in the autocratisation process, resistance is common within formal state institutions. It may be expressed in overt actions, including public statements condemning government actions.
In closed autocracies, however, resistance is exercised more by covert social movements . One reason for this is the personal risk connected to resistance. In Vladimir Putin´s autocratic Russia, for example, political dissenters know they risk being either murdered or imprisoned if they're caught.
In Donald Trump's America, on the other hand, where the new administration has taken steps that increase the level of autocracy, dissonant views may effectively be silenced because of fear of retribution . Many people are scared of losing their jobs or having their companies harmed.
Psychological profile
The science about the choices made by those who resist autocratic regimes, and the strategies they apply in resisting, is evolving.
Interviews with resisters in Myanmar suggest that personal moral commitments, being compassionate and feeling compelled to act when witnessing violations of rights, are all factors motivating resistance.
These factors are also evident in those who helped Jews survive during the Holocaust. For example, studies suggest that rescuers were more empathic and morally conscious than others. They had essentially been socialised into being ethical in childhood and were also more inclusive of people from other social groups.
People who join resistance groups also tend to be more open to taking risks . That makes sense: the more driven you are by a need to feel safe, the less likely you are to engage in anything that could jeopardise that - even if your moral compass suggests you should.
Beyond resisting autocratic steps, research on moral courage in everyday settings shows that believing you can succeed, that you have the necessary knowledge and skills, is an important predictor for intervention when people witness norm violations, whether this means addressing a perpetrator or protecting a victim.
Leadership characteristics
That said, it's not all down to individual followers. No autocratic leader can gain power without influencing their followers. The same is true of resistance: resistance cannot exist without effective leadership.
Research suggests that followers are influenced by leaders who create a positive ethical climate, which in turn influences their own ethical behaviour .
For fighting autocracy, one important aspect of this process is to communicate that inclusive moral values , such as universalism (the idea that things like liberty, justice, fraternity and equality should apply to everyone) and benevolence (helping, forgiving, being responsible) are a prominent part of the group's identity.
For example, when the Danish Jews were persecuted by the Nazis in 1943, representatives of morally-grounded institutions, including bodies representing the Protestant clergy and hospital physicians, started to actively resist the regime . They became effective leaders as they were already in jobs perceived to be morally "committed", and people trusted their judgement.
Research on nonviolent resistance also shows that strong resistance organisations, and their leaders, tend to embrace diversity among people. And when they are successful, they often include the pillars in society that have the power to disrupt , such as military forces or economic elites.
Research on the underground railroad, the network of activists helping enslaved people escape to the northern states in America or Canada, has shown that influential church leaders played a crucial role . They refused to follow federal legislation that obliged them to help slave owners capture enslaved people that had escaped.
Knowing that ethical role models are taking a stand is important for a resistance movement's followers. Stanley Milgram gave evidence for this in his much-debated psychological obedience studies, showing that 90% of the participants who had been asked to give others electrical shocks stopped immediately if two assistant teachers stopped first .
Building resistance
In a world where autocracy is on the rise, how can we foster traits in people that promote appropriate forms of resistance?
Teaching others about morally courageous figures can work, but heroism is not the key for all learners. The science suggests a number of other - perhaps surprising - objectives which can move ordinary people to stand up for democracy. In particular, educational initiatives that boost contact between different groups may be useful.
To be able to resist autocratic regimes, and help people who are persecuted under them, we ultimately need empathy for people who are different to ourselves. There's plenty of research showing that white people who move to more diverse areas, within cities, for example, become less racist .
So perhaps the more time we spend with people who are unlike us, the more we are growing our potential as resistance fighters.
We may also want to boost our self-efficacy, or self-confidence. One technique is to repeatedly expose ourselves to situations that evoke fear, but which force us to act courageously, such as standing up to bullies. This is a crucial part of ethical police training , for example.
Learning about moral values can also help build confidence. Educators who are given the challenge to teach good moral behaviour can do this effectively by focusing on universal principles - rather than those that are based on culture or social class - such as treating others how we wish to be treated.
These are building blocks for a group identity which favours empathy with all and expectations of good behaviour.
The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.
