New research from Monash University has, for the first time, investigated how children living in urban informal settlements in Indonesia and Fiji spend their time on educational, work and leisure activities, and how this may contribute to the growing gender gap in educational outcomes.
In many low- and middle-income countries, boys are falling behind girls in educational attainment, particularly in disadvantaged communities. Approximately 350-500 million children live in informal settlements, where they are often exposed to environmental hazards, criminal activity and poverty.
Published in the journal Review of Economics of the Household, the study was co-led by Dr Michelle Escobar, now at Melbourne University's Department of Economics, and Associate Professor Nicole Black, at Monash University's Centre for Health Economics.
The research was conducted as part of the Monash University-led Revitalising Informal Settlements and their Environments (RISE) program, which is trialling a new water sensitive approach to water and sanitation management in informal settlements across Makassar, Indonesia and Suva, Fiji, and is co-authored by Professor David Johnston from Monash University's Centre for Health Economics, who leads the RISE wellbeing stream.
"The findings from our study suggest that our sample of children living in informal settlements dedicates less time to educational activities than is prescribed by the school schedule, and that boys spend even less time than girls participating in both schooling and homework," Dr Escobar said.
"Achieving gender equality and improving educational opportunities for girls continues to be a core objective of low- and middle-income countries. However, as gender parity in primary school enrolment continues to improve, a growing issue of concern is the increasing disengagement from education among boys across many countries.
"In a reversal of the education gender gap, boys now lag behind girls in educational attainment in many high-income countries, and this trend is now emerging in many low- and middle-income countries, including Indonesia and Fiji."
The data was obtained through two surveys collected between 2018 and 2021 from over 1,400 children living in 24 informal settlements in Indonesia and Fiji. The children were aged between five and 15. The respondents were the children's primary caregiver. All households in each settlement were approached to complete the survey.
Children's time use information was collected from caregivers with the question, 'In the past week, on how many days/hours/minutes did your child do the following activities?' The activities included: going to school; collecting or buying water; watching TV; playing outside in the settlement; doing homework for school; working for wages; working for the family business; and caring for a household member.
Associate Professor Black said, "Our findings show that children in informal settlements spend on average 28 hours per week in educational activities, including attending school and doing homework. Boys spend on average about three hours per week less in educational activities than girls living in the same settlement. This gender difference is not explained by boys spending more time working, with girls spending about an hour more per week in unpaid labour than boys, mostly caring duties."
"We found that instead of spending their time on educational activities, boys in both Indonesia and Fiji were more likely to spend time playing outdoors. It is notable that in these informal settlements, outdoor play can increase a child's exposure to environmental health hazards.
"Overall, our results suggest that boys spend their time in less productive and potentially riskier activities than girls living in the same settlement. These patterns can have important academic and later-life consequences. Studies in other settings have shown that boys who fall behind in school face poorer job prospects and increased risks of drug use disorders and criminal behaviour in the future. Raising awareness among parents and children about the importance of time spent on education is an important first step. School-based or community-led initiatives, such as mentoring, may also be needed to close these gender gaps in educational time investments."
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