People who speak with accents perceived as 'working-class' including those from Liverpool, Newcastle, Bradford and London risk being stereotyped as more likely to have committed a crime, and becoming victims of injustice, a new study suggests.
Listeners think some accents sound guiltier than others and we should all be concerned about that
Alice Paver
Research led by the University of Cambridge, in collaboration with Nottingham Trent University, raises serious concerns about bias in the UK criminal justice system due to negative stereotyping of accents.
These stereotypes, the researchers argue, can affect all parts of the system from arrest to sentencing, and undermine not only suspects and defendants, but also the testimony of witnesses. The study is particularly concerned about accented speakers being incorrectly selected from voice identification parades.
The findings, published in Frontiers in Communication, suggest that despite progress in equality and diversity in some parts of British life, including 'working-class' and regional accents becoming more prominent on television and radio, harmful stereotypes remain.
"Our findings bring into sharp focus the disadvantage that speakers of some accents may still face in the criminal justice system," said lead author, Alice Paver, from the University of Cambridge's Phonetics Laboratory and Jesus College, Cambridge.
"Voices play a powerful role in the criminal justice system and police officers, lawyers and juries are all susceptible to judging voices based on stereotypes, whether they're aware of it or not. As things stand, listeners think some accents sound guiltier than others and we should all be concerned about that."
The test
The researchers, from Cambridge and Nottingham Trent University, asked 180 participants (~50:50 gender split) from across the UK to listen to recordings of ten regionally-accented male voices: Belfast, Birmingham, Bradford, Bristol, Cardiff, Glasgow, Liverpool, London, Newcastle and Standard Southern British English (SSBE), also referred to as RP.
Participants were then asked to rate the voices on 10 social traits - 'Educated', 'Intelligent', 'Rich', 'Working class', 'Friendly', 'Honest', 'Kind', 'Trustworthy', 'Aggressive' and 'Confident'; as well as on 10 morally 'good', 'bad' and 'ambiguous behaviours', which included a range of crime types.
These behaviours included: 'Return a lost wallet to its owner', 'Stand up for someone who is being harassed', 'Cheat on a romantic partner', 'Report a relative to the police for a minor offence', 'Drive dangerously', 'Physically assault someone', 'Shoplift', 'Touch someone sexually without consent', 'Vandalize a shop front.'
The study used a wider range of recorded accents, behaviours and criminal offences than previous research which has tended to focus on criminal behaviour in general or the binary of white versus blue-collar crime. This study included crimes which are not class stratified, such as a driving offence and a sexual offence, and is the first to identify links between listener perceptions of morality, criminality, and social traits.
To ensure their results would be valid in a criminal justice context, the researchers created voice samples in a similar way to how they are constructed for voice ID parades. The aim was to mimic, as closely as possible, how a juror or earwitness would experience them.
Findings: Status, class and regions
The results show that people with non-standard accents are more likely to be associated with criminal behaviour but that there is significant variation in perceptions between accents.
The RP-like accent was perceived as the least likely to behave in criminal ways, while the Liverpool and Bradford accents were the most likely.
Alice Paver said: "The strongest connection we found was between people's perceptions of class or status, negative traits such as aggression, and how they think someone is going to behave, particularly when it comes to crime. This is the first time that a concrete link between traits and behaviours has been made in the context of accent judgements."
Unlike previous findings, the researchers did not observe a relationship between 'solidarity traits' (such as kindness and trustworthiness) and any behaviours. Status proved a much more important predictor of behaviours, re-enforcing the link between social class and expectations of behaviour in the UK.
However, non-English accents, in particular Belfast's and Glasgow's, were rated significantly less likely to behave in criminal ways than almost all other accents. They were also thought most likely to 'stand up for someone being harassed' ('honourable behaviour') and least likely to exhibit 'morally bad' behaviours.
Alice Paver said: "Our findings show that perceptions of speakers of regional accents and how status, social attractiveness and morality interact are much more complex than previously assumed. We need a much more nuanced understanding of how accents are evaluated when it comes to different crime types."
Findings: Sexual offences
The London and Liverpool accents were rated most likely to touch someone sexually without consent, but they were very closely followed by the RP accent. Participants thought the RP accent was more likely to commit a sexual assault than any of the other offences tested.
"This finding simultaneously undermines certain traditional stereotypes about both higher status and working-class men," Alice Paver said. "This may indicate shifting perceptions of the 'type' of man who can and does commit sexual offences."
The Glasgow and Belfast speakers were thought the least likely to commit this sexual offence.
The study found that participants perceived this sexual offence as distinct from other criminal behaviours. Poor ratings for it clustered with those for non-criminal 'morally bad' behaviours, namely 'being unfaithful to a romantic partner' and 'lying on a CV'.
Findings: Newcastle and Birmingham
Previous studies have found that the Newcastle accent rates highly for traits such as friendliness, but this study recorded less positive ratings for kindness, honesty, friendliness and trustworthiness.
By contrast, the Birmingham accent, which has rated poorly in previous research across these measures, performed better than Bradford, Bristol, Liverpool, London and Newcastle in this study.
"Although relatively stable over time, language attitudes can change," Alice Paver said. "This might be the case for the Birmingham and Newcastle accents. But previous studies have often asked people what they think of an accent label whereas we played them an actual voice. That's a very different stimulus so we're not surprised people reacted differently."
Bringing about change
The study contributes to the Improving Voice Identification Procedures project. Its team of researchers is currently drafting revised guidelines for voice identification parades aimed at police officers and legal professionals.
They support the use of pre-tests to screen for bias against foil or suspect voices to make sure that they don't stand out as sounding unduly guilty or untrustworthy.
"Jurors are not currently made aware of or warned against letting voice- or accent-based prejudice sway their decisions," Paver said. "If we're asked to judge whether someone is guilty or not, and they've got a particular accent, we need to be sure we're not making that judgment because we think they sound like a bad guy."
The researchers hope that future studies will examine even more offence types; further explore the relationships between perceptions of criminality and other, non-criminal, behaviours; and make use of a broader range of voices for each accent to tease apart the effect of individual voices and the strength of regional accents.
The research was carried out in collaboration with Professor Natalie Braber and Dr David Wright of Nottingham Trent University's School of Arts and Humanities, and Dr Nikolas Pautz, of NTU's Dept. of Psychology.
Funding
This research was supported by the United Kingdom Economic and Social Research Council as part of the project Improving Voice Identification Procedures (IVIP), reference ES/S015965/1. Additional funding was provided by the Isaac Newton Trust.
Reference
A. Paver, D. Wright, N. Braber and N. Pautz, 'Stereotyped accent judgements in forensic contexts: listener perceptions of social traits and types of behaviour', Frontiers in Communication (2025). DOI: 10.3389/fcomm.2024.1462013
